The Development of Somalia

TIMELINES: DEVELOPMENT - ANCIENT ERA TO PRESENT

Ancient • c. 2350 BC: The Land of Punt establishes trade with the Ancient Egyptians. • 1st century AD: City states on the Somali coast are active in commerce trading with Greek, and later Roman merchants. Muslim era • 700–1000: City states in Somalia trade with Arab merchants and adopt Islam. • 1300–1400: Mogadishu and other prosperous Somali city-states are visited by Ibn Battuta and Zheng He. • 1500–1660: The rise and fall of the Adal Sultanate. • 1528–1535: Jihad against Ethiopia led by Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi (also called Ahmed Gurey and Ahmed Gran; "the Left-handed"). • 1400–1700: The rise and fall of the Ajuran Sultanate. • late 17th – late 19the century: Sultanate of the Geledi (Gobroon dynasty). • mid-18th century – 1929: Majeerteen Sultanate also known as Migiurtinia. • 1878–1927: Sultanate of Hobyo. Modern era • 20 July, 1887 : British Somaliland protectorate (in the north) subordinated to Aden to 1905. • 3 August, 1889: Benadir Coast Italian Protectorate (in the northeast), unoccupied until May 1893. • 1900: Mohammed Abdullah Hassan spearheads a religious war against foreigners and establishes the Dervish State. • 16 March, 1905: Italian Somaliland colony (in the northeast, central and south). • July, 1910: Italian Somaliland becomes a crown colony. • 1920: Mohammed Abdullah Hassan dies and the longest and bloodiest colonial resistance war in Africa ends. • 15 January, 1935: Italian Somaliland becomes part of Italian East Africa with Italian Eritrea (and from 1936, Ethiopia).

• 1 June, 1936: The Somalia Governorate is established as one of the six governorates of Italian East Africa. World War II • 18 August, 1940: Italian occupation of British Somaliland. • February, 1941: British administration of Italian Somaliland. TIMELINES: DEVELOPMENT - SIGNIFICANT EVENTS ON ROAD TO INDEPENDENCE Pre-Independence, unification, constitution, British double game • 1 April, 1950 Italian administration begins of former Italian Somaliland; made a Trust Territory of Somaliland by the United Nations, in November, 1949. Independence promised within 10 years. (1941: Italian Somaliland occupied by British and South African troops as part of the East African Campaign of WW II.) • 1950s: UN aid to Trust Territory, plus Italian expertise and regional commitment, contributes to growth of educational and other infrastructure. Political education and self-government reputedly explains later difference in development between post-colonial Italian and British Somalilands. • 1954: Law, economics and social studies institutions established in Mogadishu • 1956: Britain’s unsuccessful bid to buy back Somali lands of the Haud (a Somali grazing area 'protected' by British treaties with Somalis in 1884 and 1886) and the Ogaden granted to Ethiopia (based on a treaty in 1897 in which the British ceded Somali territory to Emperor Menelik II in exchange for help against raids by Somali clans.) • 1958: Referendum held in neighbouring Djibouti (then ‘French Somaliland’) on eve of Somalia's independence in 1960, to decide whether to join Somali Republic or remain with France. Expulsion of Somali voters there and widespread vote rigging is later condemned. • April, 1960: leaders of British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland (Trust Territory of Somaliland - TTS) agree to form unitary state with elected president as head of state and full executive powers to be held by a prime minister answerable to an elected 123-member National Assembly SIGNIFICANT EVENTS IN LIFE OF REPUBLIC Early republic politics, tribal loyalties, internal dissent, war fronts • 26 June, 1960: British Somaliland is granted independence as the State of Somaliland, with the understanding it is to reunite with Italian Somaliland. • 1 July, 1960: Somali Republic is established by unification of British Somaliland and the Trust Territory of Somaliland. Legislature appoints Aden Abdullah Osman Daar as first president of the Somali Republic.

• 1960-1967: Presidency of Aden Abdullah Osman Daar. • 22 July, 1960: after appointing Hagi Bashir Ismail Yousuf as first president of the Somali National Assembly, Abdirashid Ali Shermarke is appointed first Prime Minister • October, 1960: Mahmoud Harbi, pro-unification Vice President of the Government Council of French Somaliland from 1957 to December 1958, during Djibouti's pre-independence period Farah ( ጕᓗᑿዲᑻ ᣍፅዲᑢቨ ᢝᢔ ) dies in a mysterious plane crash in Italy on a return trip from China to Somalia. • June-July, 1961: national referendum. • June 20, 1961: 91 percent of 2 million voters ratify both the president confirms Agden Abdullah Osman Daar as first president of the Somali Republic, and the new constitution in national referendum (< 50 percent approval of referendum in the north, however). • 1961: The constitution provides for all ethnic Somalis, no matter where they reside, to be citizens of the republic. Somalis do not claim sovereignty over adjacent territories, but argue Somalis living in them be granted right to self-determination. • 1961: Britain calls for commission to find out popular opinion on Somali demands for separation of Northern Frontier District (NFD) from Kenya. • November, 1963: Somali Youth League party wins 74 percent of seats in countrywide municipal elections. • February, 1964: armed conflict erupts on the Somali-Ethiopian frontier; Ethiopian aircraft raid targets in Somalia. • Late 1964: mediation of Sudan, acting under the auspices of the Organization of African Unity (OAU). Under the terms of the cease-fire, a joint commission is formed to examine the causes of frontier incidents, and a demilitarized zone ten to fifteen kilometers wide is established either side of the border • March, 1964: First post-independence national elections. Somali Youth League party (SYL) wins 69 of 123 seats. • Mar-September, 1964: Somalia is left without government as President nominates Abdirizak Haji Hussein as new-broom prime minister over previous four-year incumbent, Adirashid Ali Shermarke. Hussein enjoys SYL endorsement.

SIGNIFICANT EVENTS IN LIFE OF REPUBLIC (contd)

Kenyan and NFD, party hopping, army dissent, assassination • 1964: Kenya's post-colonial government opts for a centralized constitution drawn up in 1963 denying Hamitic and other Somalis in the Northern Frontier District autonomy in the predominantly Somali region within a federal system. (The Kenyan constitution has been twice revised, in 1969 and 2010, in response to 1) an end to cold war politics, 2) demands for more control over executive government, and 3) treatment of minorities.) • 1964: Kenya signs mutual defence pact with Ethiopia. • October, 1967: Arusha Memorandum of Understanding signed by Somali and Kenyan governments (Security achieved in 1969). • 1967: presidential elections are conducted by a secret poll of National Assembly members with the central issue again moderation versus militancy on the Greater Somalia issue plus need for emphasis on social development. • 1967-1969: Presidency of Abdirashid Ali Shermarke • March, 1969: Elections combine municipal and National Assembly voting for first time. 64 parties contest elections but only the SYL presented candidates in every election district. Eight other parties present lists of candidates for national offices in most districts. Of remaining fifty-five parties, only twenty-four gain representation in assembly, but all of these disband almost immediately when their fifty members join the SYL. • May, 1969: party swopping to SYL possible under party list system results in parliament increase from 73 to 109. Widespread discontent continues because: most previous deputies lose their seats; official corruption seems to be ignored by top office holders; the Supreme Court refuses to accept election complaint petitions; post-election party hopping means voters feel mandates are often betrayed or compromised; deputies trade votes for personal gain. Both intellectuals and the army are vocally bitter with General in charge of police resigning pre-elections in protest against SYL behaviour • October 15, 1969: President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke shot dead by bodyguard. LIFE AFTER 1969 COUP: SOMALI DEMOCRATIC REPULIC Coup, dictatorship, nationalisations, Pan-Somalia war, dissent • October 21, 1969: Army commander Major General Mohamed Siad Barre leads bloodless coup d’état, renames country Somali Democratic Republic (SDR), dissolves parliament, Supreme Court and suspends constitution. • 1969–1991: Siad Barre, leader of the Supreme Revolutionary Council, rises to power • 1970: Women in Mogadishu protest in solidarity against the wrongful arrest of Afro-American activist, Angela Davis.

• July 1976: Supreme Revolutionary Council which assumes power after revolution disbands itself in favour of a one-party state based on a mix of socialism and Islam, the official state religion. Revolutionary army establishes large-scale public works, literacy campaigns. • 23 July 1977 – 15 March 1978: Ogaden War with its goal of retrieving Somali-inhabited Ogaden (see earlier entry). • July-September, 1977: By September 90 percent control is gained, with rail link to Djibouti threatened. • March, 1978: Somali troops are expelled from Ogaden, after intervention of Cuban troops backed by soviet advisers. • 1978: Unsuccessful coup against government leads to crackdown and execution of plotters. Escapees abroad plot to oust increasingly unpopular regime. • 1979: Second constitution drafted and elections for a People’s Assembly held. Barre’s Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP) politburo or executive committee continues to rule. • 1980s: End of Cold War between Russian and US limits Somalia’s strategic value for both sides. Many Ethiopian-supported resistance movements rise up nationwide, eventually leading to the Somali Civil War. Militia groups include: Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF) is created by Majerten clan members; (United Somali Congress (USC) Hawiye clan members, Somali National Movement (SNM) mostly Isaaq clan members and the Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM) mostly Ogadenis. Non-violent political oppositions include: Somali Democratic Movement (SDM), the Somali Democratic Alliance (SDA) and the Somali Manifesto Group (SMG). (World Bank 2005: 10) • 1982: Ethiopian–Somali Border War. • 1987-1989 – a systematic, state-sponsored massacre of Isaaq civilians by Barre dictatorship’s SDR. While numbers of civilian death are estimated between 50, 000 and 100, 000 by various sources, local reports put figure closer to 200, 000. This “forgotten genocide” was accompanied by destruction of Hargeisa and Burao, second and third largest cities in Somalia. In 1988 up to 500, 000 fled to Ethiopia as refugees , another 400, 000 were displaced. Hargeisa’s destruction (90 percent) led to it being called “the Dresden of Africa”.

SIGNIFICANT EVENTS: CIVIL WAR - TRANSITIONAL GOVTS

Civil war, violence, famine, interventions, transitional governments • 1991-1992: Civil War breaks out after 21 years of rule by Siad Barre’s SRSP. It ruins the country’s economic competence, kills about 250,000 people, brings devastating famine, and shapes a serious refugee problem (World Bank 2005: 11-13).

• 1990-1992: Armed factions compete for influence in power vacuum; temporary collapse of customary law. Arrival of UNITAF and UNOSOM peacekeeping forces in December 1992. • 1995: Fighting persists, especially in south. UN withdraws after suffering significant casualties; dozens of journalists, most local, are killed • 1997-98: Two autonomous regional governments are established in northern part of the country. Relative decrease in the intensity of the fighting follows. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) removes Somalia from list of major armed conflicts for the years 1997,1998. SIPRI is an independent Swedish think-tank dedicated to research into conflict, armaments, arms control and disarmament.) • 2000: Abdiqasim Salad Hassan is selected as the President of the nation's new Transitional National Government (TNG), an interim administration formed to guide Somalia to its third permanent republican government. • 10 October, 2004: a Transitional Federal Parliament (TFP) session elects former Puntland President Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed President of the succeeding Transitional Federal Government (TFG), an interim federal administrative body he has helped establish earlier in the year. Vote, in third round: 189 votes from the TFG Parliament versus 79 to Somali ambassador Abdullahi Ahmed Addou. Incumbent President of Somalia, Abdiqasim Salad Hassan then withdraws. • 14 October, 2004: President Ahmed is sworn in. • November, 2004: Transitional Federal Government (TFG) is one of the Transitional Federal Institutions (TFIs)recognised internationally until 20 August, 2012 by the Transitional Federal Parliament (TFP) and defined in the Transitional Federal Charter (TFC). • 2005-07: sustained and destructive conflict takes place in the south but the fighting is of much lower scale and intensity than early 1990s. • 2006: the Islamic Courts Union (ICU), an Islamist organization, assumes control of much of the southern part of the country and promptly imposes Shari'a law. • 2006 – Jan 2007: The Transitional Federal Government seeks to re-establish authority. With the aid of Ethiopian troops and air support by the United States, African Union peacekeepers drive out the ICU and solidify rule. • 2006-2009: War in Somalia SIGNIFICANT EVENTS: WAR IN SOUTH, RECOVERY Mogadishu falls, AMISOM, piracy, new constitution, ethics • May-July 2006 - Battle of Mogadishu.

• December, 2006 - Fall of Mogadishu. In 2006, Ethiopian troops seizes most of the south from the newly formed Islamic Courts Union (ICU). ICU splinters into more radical groups, notably Al-Shabaab , still fighting government forces and an AU-mandated AMISOM peacekeeping force for control of country. • 8 January, 2007: TFG President and founder Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, a former colonel in the Somali Army and decorated war hero, enters Mogadishu for the first time since being elected to office. • January, 2007: Government relocates to Villa Somalia in Mogadishu (from interim location in Baidoa.) This marks the first time since the fall of the Barre regime in 1991 that the federal government controls most of the country. • 2008-2013: Somalia tops annual Sweden’s independent Fragile States Index. (In 2014- 15 it is described as a recovering state ‘making some progress to stability.’) • May 31-June 9, 2008: representatives of Somalia's federal government and the moderate Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia (ARS) group of Islamist rebels participate in Djibouti peace talks brokered by former United Nations Special Envoy to Somalia, Ahmedou Ould-Abdallah. • October, 2008: Parliament subsequently expanded to 550 seats to accommodate ARS members. Former ARS chairman Parliament is then elected to office by parliament. • 2008: Pirate activities in Somalia bring in over $50 million making it the most productive industry in Somalia (Worth and McDonald, 2008.) Continue until 2012. • 29 December, 2008: Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed announces his resignation as President of Somalia in Baidoa. • March, 2009: Somalia's coalition government announces it will re-implement Shari'a as the nation's official judicial system. • September, 2010: Former Premier Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke resigns after dispute with President • 10 September, 2010: Parliament elects Hassan Sheikh Mohamud as the new president of Somalia. • 12 November, 2010: Prime Minister Mohamed names a new Cabinet, reducing 39 portfolios to 18. Cabinet ministers fully disclose their assets and sign a code of ethics. • 14 June, 2011: 20 years since last functioning govt administered Somalia. • 19 June 2011: Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed resigns from his position as Prime Minister of Somalia. • 12 June, 2012: Latest constitution is drafted • 1 August, 2012: Provisional approval of constitution.

SIGNIFICANT EVENTS IN FEDERAL GOVERNMENT (FGS)

Transition to Federal Government, Parliament restarts, roadmaps • 20 August, 2012: Federal Government of Somalia (FGS) begins with inauguration of parliament after Transitional Federal Government (TFG) interim mandate ends. First permanent central government in country since start of civil war • 10 September, 2012: Parliament elects as new president Hassan Sheikh Mohamud. • 6 October, 2012: President Mohamud appoints Abdi Farah Shirdon as new Prime Minister. • April, 2013: In resumed national reconciliation talks between central government and secessionist Somaliland authorities President Hassan agree to cooperate on security – and allocation to Somaliland its portion of development aid previously earmarked for Somalia as a whole. • September, 2013 - International donors promise 2.4 billion dollars in reconstruction aid in three-year ''New Deal''. • September, 2013 - Al-Shabab seize shopping centre and kill 60 people in Kenyan capital Nairobi declaring it was “in retaliation for Kenya's military involvement in Somalia”. • 21 December, 2013: Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed succeeds Abdi Farah Shirdon as new Prime Minister. 2014 - 2025 From ‘failed state’ to ‘fragile’ to recovering state • April, 2014: AMISOM (African Union Mission to Somalia) convoy reinforces Somali military. • May, 2014 - Al-Shabab claims bomb attack on restaurant in Djibouti as it was “used as launch pad to strike Muslims”. • June, 2014 - Al-Shabab claims two attacks on Kenyan coast killing more than 60; threaten more against Kenya. • August, 2014: Somali government-led Operation Indian Ocean to eradicate remaining insurgent-held pockets in countryside. • September, 2014 - Al-Shabab leader Ahmed Abdi Godane killed in US drone strike. Government offers 2 million dollar bounty for successor, Ahmad Omar. • October, 2014: AMISOM joins Operation Indian Ocean to fight against Al-Shabab. • November, 2014 - Government launches country's first postal service in more than two decades. Mogadishu's first ever cash withdrawal machine installed in hotel.

• November-December, 2014 - Al Shabab carry out mass killings in north-east Kenya, including on a bus and a camp of quarry workers. • 17 December, 2014, former Premier Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke reappointed Prime Minister. • 6 February, 2015 Deputy Prime Minister Omar Arteh appointed. • April, 2015 - Al-Shabaab claim responsibility for killing 148 people, mostly Christians, at Garissa University College, northern Kenya. Kenya retaliates with air raids on Somalia’s Al-Shabab bases. • May, 2015 - US Secretary of State John Kerry visits Mogadishu, first US officeholder to do so, a few weeks after Al-Shabab kill 17 people in the city’s government quarter. • January 2016 - Somali Media Law passed. • February, 2016 - African Union leaders agree on more support for their military presence in Somalia after weeks of increased Al-Shabaab attacks on public spaces and pro-government troops. Government and African Union troops recapture southern port of Merca that al-Shabaab briefly seized. • September 4, UN Assistance Mission in Somalia (UNSOM) issue first-ever public human rights report which corroborates NISA’s abuses, including repressing the rights to free speech and peaceful assembly. • November, 2016 - After fighting displaced up to 90,000 in Galkayo leaders of Puntland and Galmudug agree to respect ceasefire there. 2017–2021: Farmaajo presidency Expanded diplomacy, reduced cabinet, greater security, emphasis on technocratic competence • 8 February, 2017 - Parliament elects as president former prime minister Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed (Farmaajo). Al-Shabab threatens to target anyone collaborating with him. • 23 February, 2017 President appoints former humanitarian worker and businessman Hassan Khaire as Prime Minister. • March, 2017 - Pirates seize tanker off coast of Puntland in the first hijacking of a large vessel since 2012. • March, 2017 – Govt amends Somali Media Law • May, 2017 - President Mohamed at London conference calls for lifting of arms embargo to help defeat al-Shabab. UN Secretary General Antonio Guterres says conditions now in place for Somalia to become a recovering state, “success story”.

• October 14, 2017 - Mogadishu suffers deadliest double truck bombing that kills more than 512 people injuring 316 with 62 people missing presumed incinerated by the following inferno. Al-Shebab is prime suspect. • 5 September, 2018 - Somalia, Ethiopia & Eritrea sign agreement to advance political, economic and security integration to lessen reliance on Gulf or Western actors mediating regional relations. • 24 September 2019 – President Farmaajo awarded Concordia Leadership Award jointly with Ethiopia’s and Eritrea’s Presidents for cooperative efforts in promoting regional peace and economic integration. • 25 March, 2020 - Somalia's debt greatly reduced through IMF/World Bank (IDA) Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative, facilitating international financial reintegration. [Due to pace of fiscal and governance reforms since 2017: Paris Club cancelled US$1.4 billion of 3 owed; IMF/IDA/African Development Bank: 806 of US$974 m. owed; others incl. Russia: $US1billion.] 3 May, 2020 On World Press Freedom Day Mogadishu lawyers sue then NISA chief Fahad Yasin and cousinVilla Somalia communications Deputy Chief of Staff Abdinur Mohamed Ahmed for a violent April raid on Mustaqbal Media by the Turkish-trained special police unit, Hamacad. 8 September, 2020 Special prosecutor appointed to investigate crime against journalists. With highest rate at killings and maiming in Africa for decades (70 killed since 1992, 10 since 2017 and only 11% judicially resolved, National Committee of Safety of Journalists calls for regulatory oversight following 2019 UNESCO-Somali Journalist Syndicate Mogadishu workshop.) • 23 September, 2020 Mohamed Hussein Roble appointed as Prime Minister. • 26 August, 2020 Somali Media Law approved. SJS & SOMA oppose some amendments to 2016’s media law for its coverall definitions: “false news” “promoting tribalism” “incitement” “propaganda against the dignity of any citizen … (or) the state”. • 29 September, 2020 Farmaajo criticised by SJS, SOMA for comments re journalist’s lack of knowledge, linking journalists critical of govt to al-Shabaab. SJS cited media shut-downs and restricted information access being justified by “alleged national security concerns”. 2021 Constitutional crisis emerges when President Farmaajo’s term expires without new elections: armed clashes erupts in Mogadishu between rival factions. • February, 2021: With expiry of President term and no date set for successor elections, fighting breaks out in Mogadishu. Continues until May when government and opposition agree elections within 60 days. Later set for 10 October.

• May 2021 - President Farmaajo announces he will not remain in office beyond original mandate • 26 September, 2021 – Australian international lawyers file lawsuit with the Hague-based International Criminal Court (ICC) implicating the FGS in four cases of crimes against humanity. Lawyer Yusef Abdi Farah outlined separate cases in their lawsuit. • 1 November, 2021 - Long delayed electoral process begins, to finish December. • December, 2021 allPresident Farmaajo revokes PM’s authority to organise upcoming elections. • 26 December, 2021 - PM Roble counter-accuses President of sabotaging electoral process. • 27 December, 2021: President suspends PM over alleged obstruction of investigation into land confiscation corruption. 2022–2024: Return of President Hassan Sheikh Territorial gains, renewed conflict in north, contested media regulations • February-April 2023 Las Anod conflict begins in north (south-east Somaliland). After 1991 Somaliland breakaway, growing discontent amongst over Somaliland’s “economic embargo” results in violence against protests. Dozens of civilians killed, more than 154,000 people flee internally or to Ethiopia. Amnesty International finds Somaliland forces indiscriminately shelled Las Anod town, damaging hospitals, schools, & mosques. • 1 April, 2022 - AMISOM replaced by African Union Transition Mission in Somalia (ATMIS). • 15 May, 2022 - Academic & Islamist politician Hassan Sheikh Mohamud re-elected president (previous term: 2012-17), defeating Farmaajo. • 3 June, 2022 ATMIS withdraws 2,000 of c. 20,000 forces from Somalia as part of expected withdrawal by late 2024 • 25 June, 2022 House of the People votes to approve Hamza Abdi Barre who was appointed 9 June to replace Roble as PM. • August, 2022 – Amended Media Law bill becomes primary regulatory framework for media oversight. Condemned by media unions and rights groups for imposing heavy monetary fines on journalists/managers and too wide security definitions resulting in restricted access to government information and impunity culture. 2023

• Major government-led offensive supported by local "Ma'awisley" militias liberate significant territory in central Somalia. • Al-Shabab continues to conduct targeted indiscriminate attacks killing hundreds of civilians. • Five consecutive below-average annual rains continue to have a devastating impact on food and health, with at least 4.3 million people in urgent need of food assistance. • 22 February, 2023 Senate passes bill granting National Security and Intelligence Agency (NISA) sweeping powers of arrest, detention, and surveillance with minimal independent oversight. 2024 Somalia navigates complex mix of climate shocks, persistent terrorism, and governance challenges, with humanitarian situation remaining critical. Despite ongoing security challenges, economy’s GDP growth increases by estimated 4% bolstered by agricultural recovery and private consumption • 1 January, 2024 Ethiopia-Somaliland MoU: Ethiopia signs Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with Somaliland to lease a Red Sea port for naval base access in exchange for potential recognition of Somaliland’s independence. Somalia responds by strengthening ties with Egypt and Turkey. • March, 2024 Puntland’s breakaway: semi-autonomous state of Puntland withdraws recognition of FGS following unilateral changes by federal parliament. • March 2024 Official Information Bill approved by council of Ministers but still pending FGS signing. following concerns by journalist and rights groups that it criminalises journalism by promoting a culture of secrecy that violates constitutional rights to information. • 20 March, 2024 Somali women MPs rally against opposition to women in politics. • June, 2024 Somalia elected as non-permanent member of UN Security Council for 2025-2026 term, first time on SC since 1970. • August 2024 - Direct Election Bill: Somali cabinet approves landmark bill to move from indirect clan-based system to universal suffrage (one-person-one-vote) for future elections. • November, 2024 - Abdirahman Mohamed Abdullahi wins Somaliland presidential election defeating incumbent Muse Bihi Abdi. • 17 Dec 2024 Somalia criminalizes consensual same-sex conduct with up to three years in prison.

2025 • 2025-2026 Somalia begins two-year term as non-permanent member of the UN Security Council. • 1 January, 2025 - African Union Support and Stabilization Mission in Somalia (AUSSOM) officially replaces ATMIS to continue security support, endorsed by SC Resolution 2767. • Parliament continues reviewing provisional constitution with disputes over electoral models persisting between FGS and states like Puntland. • Media restrictions: journalists face arrests and violence with incidents in Mogadishu and Puntland. • Friction between FGS and regional states (like Jubaland) hamper counterterrorism efforts, with clashes occurring. • July, 2025 - Despite bombing at Mogadishu military base (May) major offensives, including attacks in Middle Shabelle (February), recapture of strategic towns like Sablid and Anole (July). • 21 August, 2025 – Cabinet approves new Cybercrime Bill aimed at strengthening national security and fighting online crime. • 15-16 December, 2025 ff - Somali forces with international partners (including US AFRICOM) continue active strikes against al-Shabaab and ISIS cells in Golis Mountains and southern regions. • 30 December, 2025 Israel announces recognition of Somaliland. Protests erupt across towns and cities in Somalia including Mogadishu, Buhoodle, Galkacyo, Guriel, Hudur, Bahdo, Las Anod, Adado, Dhusamareb, Merca, Baidoa, Hobyo, Harardhere, Abudwak, and Borama. 2026 • Jan 2, 2026 - FGS condemns Israel’s recognition of the breakaway state of Somaliland, as well as Somaliland’s decision to open an embassy in Israel.